3.4 Chinese Ancient Primitive Environmental Ethics
“Even in ancient times people took for granted the degraded state of the environment and did not realize the beauty and richness that been destroyed. Protecting it takes constant vigilance. Likewise protecting our own nature takes constant vigilance and this is the job of ethical education. But [be]awareness of what is innate and good can be uncovered in everyone” (Mencius).
3.4.1 Revival of Chinese Philosophies of Nature
In the modern world, environmentalism has become a powerful ideology as peoples and governments around the globe contemplate and reassess their relationship with the natural world. Collective development projects actions such as the construction the Three Gorges Dam have, had huge impacts upon environment. Human decisions and behaviours which impact the environment, involve ethical decision making that often cannot be resolved simply by utilitarian’s cost-benefit assessments regarding human and environmental resources as a measure of the ‘greatest good’ (Hamilton, 1994; Jenkins, 2002). Given the modification of the natural environment, human beings have developed different socio-cognitive frameworks to “conceptualize environmental contexts, store environmental knowledge, and provide rules of behavior” (Lovelace, 1985; quoted in Jenkins, 2002, p.48). The present environmental crisis provides a strong incentive in the search for new ethical paradigms of a human/nature relationship in social science which reflects a heightened consciousness of the moral aspects and responsibilities of ‘enlightened environmentalism’ (Tu, 1998a). Rationality, accompanied by a moral sense of environmental stewardship can be used to provide humans with “the possibility of an ethic of responsibility towards nature” (Jenkins, 2002, p.40). J. Baird Callicott (1994, p.84) illustrates this point: “Ecology reverses the typically western focus on the figure at the expense of the ground in the proverbial figure-ground gestalt. Relationships are ontologically upgraded, and classical entities, proportionately, ontologically downgraded.”
The adopted premise of this chapter is that new paradigms may offer conceptual insights appropriate to environmental ethics in contemporary age sufficient for reevaluating and re-sanctifying the importance of humans’ relationship to nature (Tucker, 1994) and for “guiding humanity’s responses” (Jenkins, 2002, p.40). The neoclassical paradigm’s void of morality in social science suggests that re-examination of Judeo-Christian theoretical frameworks may provide the ethical foundation of combining both ancient “‘eastern’ insights of holism, harmony and balance, and ‘western’ contributions of empirical understanding and wise ecological management” and “prescriptions for post-scientific problems” (Rolston, 1987; Jenkins, 2002, p.48). As Callicott remarks: “an international environmental ethic firmly grounded in ecology and buttressed by the new physics will complement, rather than clash with, the environmental ethics implicit in the world’s many indigenous traditions of thought” (Callicott, 1994, p. 209-210). Further, ancient traditions of environmental stewardship may provide rationales and incentives for particular types of behavior which advance humanity’s harmonious relationship with nature and the social responsibility for its care (Jenkins, 2002). As Tu optimistically views the situation, although “the central values and concepts of Chinese traditions were formulated in pre-modern times, they preserve pre-industrial knowledge, can be contrasted critically with current values and concepts, can resonate with newly developing conceptual frameworks, and may contain cultural resources which contribute to current socio-economic and environmental policy, post-industrial sustainability, and a new moral ecology” (quoted in Jenkins, 2002, p.48). This being so, ancient Chinese traditions as a source of wisdom may offer opportunities to ameliorate the ongoing environmental crisis. Some of these themes afford a broader perspective that provides effective insights to balance the traditional western wisdom on the topic. A number of western philosophers in particular hold the view that oriental philosophy provides an ethical alternative or supplement to modern directions in the development of environmental frameworks for moral conscious. Such frameworks have little in common with the classical or Hellenistic worlds (Cooper & James, 2005).
Chinese ancient philosophies, along with most eastern philosophies from the distant past saw the world in holistic terms. Unlike ancient Greek philosophies based on reason, Chinese ancient philosophy never developed mechanical theories for the universe and it tends to find reality in interrelation slips which connect the world and provide explanation of its structure (Liu, 1989). Chinese Daoism, for example, relied primarily on personal reflection of man’s relationship with nature in holistic, not reductionist terms. To follow the Dao, however, is to adopt a form of naturalism, conditioned by spontaneity, to act and yet not to seek to act. Thus in this sense many environmentalists have turned to Daoism as providing a foundation for an environmental ethic (Wolkwitz, 2009).
In what follows, I shall endeavor to clarify the Daoist’ conception of nature in such a way that its environmental philosophy can be more unambiguously elaborated. I will attempt to articulate the Daoist concept of nature as an ontological foundation or veritable grounding for the metaphysics of environmentalism. Using those concepts of nature, I will provide an interpretation of Daoism which suggests that humans should relate to nature in a way that forms the foundation upon which an environmental ethic could be built. I will argue that Daoism thought has a distinctive and important philosophical contribution to make in reshaping how humans should conceptualize their relationship to the natural world in a way that defines ethically how they should act in it, thereby helping to solve many of the environmental problems confronting society today (Cooper & James, 2005; Wolkwitz, 2009). In fact, the interpretation of Daoism to be presented here will reveal its significant developmental potential in the contemporary ecological setting (Kane, 2001).
3.4.2 Generations of Daoism
Daoism … is the Religion of the Dao, a term meaning Path or Way, but denoting in this peculiar case the way, course or movement of the Universe, her processes and methods. In other words, Daoism is the Religion of Heaven and Earth, of the Cosmos, of the World or Nature in the broadest sense of these words. Hence we may call it Naturism. (De Groot: Religious System of China, IV, p. 66.)
Chinese Daoism (also known as Taoism) is a philosophy and a belief of simplicity and spontaneous naturality (ziran). Its inception can be traced back at least to 1900 years ago. Daoism is not philosophically monolithic in structure; it is perhaps structurally best described as an umbrella that covers a range of similar but subtlety different doctrines. Daoism’ main doctrine is embodied in the books of the Daode Jing[1](around 300 BC, also known as ‘Laozi[2]’ after its author, or ‘Taote Ching’ and ‘Zhuangzi[3]’ (around 400 BC, also named after its author). Both Laozi and Zhuangzi are the most famous teachers of Daoism. Both the Daode Jing and the Zhuangzi[4]are composites of writings and rewritings over centuries from various sources, including their students and related thinkers. Each has a distinctive poetic and rhetorical style by way of which the essays presented reveal the complexity and multi-layered and sometimes playful innuendo, making some sections of these works notoriously difficult to translate. The Daode Jing is an appropriate organizational structure with laconic ‘terse and poetic’, while the Zhuangzi “is prolix, funny, elusive and filled with fantasy dialogues” (Hansen, 1992, quoted in Daoism, preface, ph.2). Both works address the nature of ‘Dao’ and related concepts that were essential to certain ethical dialectics of relevance to Ancient China.
Despite the different interpretations of Daoist doctrines, many ideas in Daoism’s creeds, tenets, and practices, are not only compatible with but serve as philosophical resources for the concept of environmental protection. Whether Daoism is viewed as a philosophy of naturalism, conformed to the ‘order of nature’ that creates and governs all things, or as a philosophy of human autonomy which regards man as separate form nature, there exists substantial edification providing direction for humans to act ethically in accordance with the way of the natural world, thereby monitoring and preventing the ecological degradation caused by invasive human interventions (Jenkins, 2002). Daoism teaches that humans should strive for harmony and simplicity in life and seek to find a great peacefulness in one’s mind. Extreme actions will face the opposite force until the balance is reached.
‘Ziran’ (nature) is one of the central concepts of Daoism, which captures the “spontaneity, all-inclusive unity, interdependence, internal resonance, self-organizing structure and convergence of nature as an organism” (Jenkins, 2002, p.42). Daoism claims ‘Dao follows nature’, ‘Unity of Heaven and Man’ (tianren heyi), ‘Unity of Object and Man’ (wuwuo heyi), and ‘the three realms exploit each other’ (sancai xiangdao), through the endless change between Yin (i.e. feminine) and Yang (i.e. masculine). Accordingly, the guiding behavioral principal derived from those claims is ‘The Heavenly Way is Non-action’ (tiandao wuwei), action which does not go against the order of nature’ (Needham, 1956).
Important Daoist Concepts
Daoism can be confusing mainly because some of its key concepts are intended to be empathetically generated. Here, I shall endeavor to clarify some of the central concepts that play important roles in the doctrines of Daoism such as Dao (way) and De (power/virtue), Wu Wei (non-action) and Pu (simplicity).
Dao and De: The Ethical Concepts
Dao (Way, Guide, Road)
Different schools of Chinese philosophy expound on different ‘Daos’, as with the Confucian ‘Dao’ of the Doctrine of the Mean and the Buddhist ‘Dao of dharma’.
‘Dao’ is the pivotal, transcendent concept of Chinese philosophical thought, including Daoism. Often, the universal translation given in English is ‘the way’. The Dao generally refers to modalities of behavior, understanding and the constant dynamic of changing from and to. It occupies in Chinese philosophy the position more or less similar to ‘being’ or ‘truth’ in western philosophy (Wong, 2011). Dao is like an ‘oversoul’ or godlike moral force, not so unlike that presented in the transcendentalist metaphysics of Thoreau’s holism, permeating everything in nature (Nash, 1990). Dao is explained by Laozi as an intangible, eternal and nameless, energy or force, which is spontaneously in operation everywhere as a type of cosmic law and dependent on nothing, but from which everything can be derived from it. According to the Daode Jing (Ch.42, tr. Lau), “Dao begets one. One begets two. Two begets three. Three begets all things”. Since the Dao is ineffable and has an infinite and all-pervasive, transformative, life-sustaining, and nourishing nature, as a modern ecologist might put it, it ‘rejects all names’ (reputation, fortune, etc.). Everything in the universe is changing all the time. And the nature of the world is becoming, not being. The Dao therefore can also be understood as a total process of change. Absolute ‘stillness’ is not possible. Relative ‘stability’ can only be achieved when one reaches an internal harmony governed by Dao’s cosmic principles of ‘Yin’ and ‘Yang’. The interactions of those two opposite but complementary natural forces in the universe cause everything to exist in a constantly transformative state. The five elements (water, fire, wood, metal and earth) in Daoism are used to describe different parts of the world. The following diagram from Daode Jing shows the interrelationship of Yin/Yang and five elements.
Figure 3-1: Symbol for Daoism
Dao contains three elements: Ren Dao (Human/Social Dao), Tian Dao (Natural/Heavenly Dao), and Da Dao (Great Dao). The relationship between those three elements was one of the central themes and key expressions recognized in the discourses of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Human Dao in general is part of embedded in both natural Dao and great Dao, with a normative orders constructed by human practices (Needham, 1956; Feng, 1983). Natural Dao can be regarded as the constancies of science. Great Dao covers everything (Hansen, 1992). “Natural Dao and Great Dao are ‘constant’ while human Dao are inherently changeable and subject to interpretation” (Daoism, 2013, Ch.2). “Dao that can Dao are not constant Dao” (Daode Jing, Ch.1), as the first line of Daode Jing goes.” Thus, not only that we should not “flaunt or violate nature, but that we simply cannot flaunt it” (Daoims, 2013, Ch.2). Thus, “follow the natural Dao” is the Daoists’ suggestion to guide our acts in human world. “A Dao that does not Dao. Whatever Dao we choose will be a natural one” (Daoism, 2013, Ch.2).
De (Integrity, Virtue, Power)
The ‘De’ is another pivotal concept to Daoism as well as in Chinese philosophy. If Daois the primordial essence of the universe which forms and conditions everything, then De is best understood as the tangible expression of the Dao within individual entities (Goddard, 1919; Hansen, 1992). It can be described as anything from the power of Daothat “nourishes, sustains, and transforms beings” (Kane, 2001, p.63) to a code of conduct characterized by inner power, moral principle, integrity, graciousness, and benevolence. It is the highest form of virtue. “The man of highest ‘power’ does not reveal himself as a possessor of ‘power’” (Daode Jing, Ch.38, tr. Waley). Therefore, De simple reveals itself in all his behavior (Schwartz, 1985).
The De is permeated and sustained myriad things in nature and because the Dao begets myriad things, therefore the Dao possesses the De. The De is a great power that binds myriad things to Dao, giving them shape and conditions which assist in transmitting them into completion (ibid). From this point of view, we can deduce that myriad things in the universe and the interconnectivity among them implicitly indicated by the concept of the ‘ontologically equal.’ The interplay between the elements of De, is interpreted by many ecologists as the inherence and yet interdependence of a diversely ordered nature. The Dao and De are paired together to form a single notion, Daode, which is in Chinese term for ‘ethics’. Hence, “all of the myriad things revere Dao and honour De” (Kane, 2001, p. 33).
Wu-wei (Non-Action)
“Wu-wei” is one of Daoism’s most fundamental tenets. It is sometimes literally translated as “non-doing” or “non-action.” There is another less commonly referenced interpretation of Wu-wei: doing less (contrast to excessive doing) to achieve an end (Kane, 2001). Wei, in this context, would normally mean ‘to act’, while Wu is simply tantamount to ‘do not exist’. Wu-wei really means no purposive action- do nothing and everything has been done (Daode Jing, Ch.37). This paradoxical ‘Action of non-action’ concept is commonly accepted in contemporary environmental thought. ‘Non-action’ does not refer to be laziness or asceticism. It refers rather to the cultivation of spiritual practice in which adopts behavioral dispositions which are effortlessly in alignment with the natural fluctuation of the comic (Dao). This process emphasizes the importance of how one acts in accordance with natural processes already extant (‘following nature’), in which ― without putting an effort ― we are able to handle effectively to whatever happens (Goddard, 1919; Kane, 2001, vii). This being so, the concept of ‘non-action’ recommended by Daoist philosophy, regarding ecological behaviors is so simple and yet so profound that it almost equals to a truism: acting follows the nature (Ip, 1983; Kane, 2001).
The practice of Wu-wei is considered to be the highest form of De (virtue) by Daoists ― action is in no way intentional or deliberated, but rather occurs spontaneously. In Chapter 38 of the Daode Jing (tr. Jonathan Star), Laozi tells us:
The highest virtue is to act without a sense of self
The highest kindness is to give without a condition
The highest justice is to see without a preference
When Tao is lost one must learn the rules of virtue
When virtue is lost, the rules of kindness
When kindness is lost, the rules of justice
When justice is lost, the rules of conduct
The pivotal relationship that Daoists deal with is the relationship between ‘tian’ (nature) and ‘ren’ (the human). ‘Wei’ is something done through human ‘generalizing and conceptualizing’ rather than something done ‘naturally’. To act without ‘Wei’ is to act, in accordance with unprincipled knowing, on ‘natural’ instinct or intuition spontaneously (ziran). This removal of the imposition of knowledge-conditions on social rules and the conceptual character of our behavior is called Wu-zhi (non-knowledge). Promoting the names and knowledge are regarded by Laozi as forms of social control. And therefore one should act as Wu-yu (the absence of material desires).
Pu (Simplicity, Pre-linguistic Purity)
Let us now consider the Daoist ‘primitivist’ ideal ‘Pu’ as expressed mainly in the Laozi. Achieving the state of ‘Pu’ is required to forget ‘Ming’ (names/reputations) and ‘Yu’ (desires). Literally Pu means ‘unhewn wood’ or ‘uncarved block’, which represents the “original nature…prior to the imprint of culture” (Kraemer, 1986, p. 286). Pu is normally translated as ‘simplicity’ or sometimes ‘naturalness’ (Kraemer, 1986). Laozi expressed his point through Pu that the artificially created socialized desires (e.g. status, reputation, fame, authority, fortune) lead to unnecessary competition and unhappiness. “Once the block is carved, there are names (desires)” (Daode jing, Ch.32; Feng, 1947, tr. Hughes, p.60). Such socially constructed humane (Ren) government masters us by refraining from desires. Laozi hints at places in Daode Jing that pursuit of names curbs our ability for appreciation and reverence towards nature (“the five colors blind the eye …”). Laozi entices us to “move naturally, without planning and reliance on the structures given to them by others” (Daode Jing, Ch.15). We are thus required to forget all our socialization, and free ourselves from the socially induced, artificially created desires that cause competition and unhappiness in society and return to the ‘primordial state’ (Slingerland, 2003). Hence: “Simplicity without a name is free from all external aim” (Daode Jing, Ch.37, tr. Legge).
Yin and Yang
The Daoist’ concept of Yin and Yang (also as Qian and Kun), when conceived as internal polar opposites provide the driving force behind the processes of creative change and are responsible for the natural evolution (Toh, 2009). The symbol of Yin/Yang is used to represent the world in a binary way and works complementarily together in a dynamic relationship (Cammann, 1987). As we intimated earlier, ‘Yang’ is often used to represents the masculine, proactive, expansive, creative and positive principle, while ‘Yin’ is often associated with the feminine, passive, defensive, reactive and negative principle. The relationship between Yin and Yang is interrelated, interdependent and ultimately irreducible, encouraging unity out of dualism (ibid). That being so, the traits that ‘Yin’ holds are not identified in the traditional western viewpoint as negative traits. Instead, Yin and Yang are said to be the opposite but related natural forces in the universe. Their function is to maintain a changing universe. The relative ‘stability’ can only be achieved when a harmony is reached between ‘Yin’ and ‘Yang’ (Schwartx, 1985; Black, 1989). “The ten thousand things are sustained by Yin; they are encompassed by Yang, and the immaterial breath renders them harmonious” (Daode Jing, Ch.42, tr. Susuki). Daoist metaphysics revere softness, weakness, slowness, and lowliness as “the highly desirable traits of adaptability and perseverance” (Kane, 2001, p.78) since reversing reflects the characteristic movement of the Dao (Feng, 1947). The Yin, actually possesses a great deal of strength, can overcome the Yang through perseverance, persistence and endurance (Kane, 2001). The typical example is a constant dripping wearing away the rocks (Shuidi Shichuan). “There is nothing in the world more soft and weak than water, and yet for attacking things that are firm and strong there is nothing that can take precedence of it; for there is nothing (so effectual) for which it can be changed” (Daode Jing, Ch.78, tr. Legge). This dynamical synergy formed by the interacting and exchange of Yin and Yang within a mutual whole are thought to be the motive force for the formation and transformation of all things in the universe (Cheng, 1996). They are not only complementing each other, but they are intricately interconnected and exhibit a form of irreducible interdependence. Form this interdependence we can grasp the sense of unity and oneness in the harmony of Dao in which Yin and Yang become two sides of the same coin. Instead of viewing those two forces as opposite, the Yin and Yang are bound together to form one discrete unity of “dynamical equilibrium, resonance, harmonization of synergy, and ceaseless interchange and exchange of energy” (Cheng, 1996, p.151). All things that evolve must be in balance through the transformation between Yin and Yang. Every rise transforms into a fall, and every day transforms into a night. This organic balance of Yin and Yang offers a different way for environmentalists to view the world in terms of our relationship with nature. That is, seeking balance, harmony instead of differentiation between humans and nature .
3.4.3 Unity of Heaven/Object and Man — A Holistic Concept
The holistic concept of man-nature was first developed in China’s earliest philosophical treatise. The Book of Changes (Yijing) (11th century BC), and then developed by later great thinkers such as Laozi, Zhuangzi and Confucius. Chinese ancient world view represents the philosophical foundation for the wholeness and unity. ‘Universality’ is regarded as the dialectical principle that underlies most, if not all Chinese philosophy thoughts. The harmonious man-nature relationship was the ‘commentary’ characteristic shared by Daoism, Buddhism, Confucianism and other Chinese ancient philosophies and thoughts (Feng, 1983). Consider, for example, Daoism’s basic concept of ‘oneness with the universe’, Buddhism’s ‘dharmadhatu’, and Confucius ‘heaven and earth are the one’, exists in dependent origination and thus in ‘absolute accordance with what is right’ (Moore, 1967; Feng, 1983, Liu, 2006). Each of these philosophical renditions enshrines the concept of oneness, normally generalized in terms of ‘Unity of Heaven and Man’ (Moore, 1967; Feng, 1983; Hanson, 1992; Liu, 2006). J. Baird Callicott, the most well-known advocate of the land ethic, adapted the holistic conceptualization of Daoism and argued that the biosystemic whole is the center of moral consideration (Callicott & Ames, 1989). Leopold in his “Land Ethic” argued that the sphere of ecological ethics is primarily “dealing with man’s relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it” (Leopold, 1949, “The Ethical Sequence”, para.4).
Heaven, earth and human are seen as three interlocking parts of one unified universe and they are all embodied in the concepts of ‘Dao of Humans’, ‘Dao of Heaven’, and ‘Dao of Harmony’ (Feng, 1983). The order of nature and the order of human society, albeit possessing distinctive characteristics, are and should be harmonious. All things in the world are seen as connected as one in harmony, and all things in the world are inseparable and interdependent.
As a Daoist poem put it:
Heaven and Earth have the same roots as me,
all things share the same body with me.
The human body is the micro-cosmos;
Heaven and Earth are the macro-cosmos (Daozang).
In the Immortals Book of Salvation of the World by the Manifestation of Dao from the Supreme Concourse (Taishang huadao dushi xianjing), it is said that Dao is the origin of the universe (Heaven, Earth and Man). “Man is derived from the Earth, the Earth is derived from Heaven, and Heaven is derived from Dao. Dao is self-derived” (Daode Jing, Ch.25, tr. Goddard). Heaven, Earth and Man are bound together and sharing the same body (Nature) through Dao in the universe. This notion represents Daoist concepts of totality. Man and his myriad forms of connectivity coexist within ‘Heaven’s net’. “Heaven’s net is vast, so vast. It is wide-meshed, but it loses nothing” (Daode Jing, Ch.73, tr. Suduki). All kinds of lives are inextricably entwined into this huge heaven’s net, and man is merely one of the strings which bind it together, as are the mountains, rivers, trees, rocks, soil, air and animals which amongst other things also compose facets of the overall part of this humongous and seamless network (Hansen, 1992).
In this sense, mega-project ideology interprets “the real and ontological separation of ‘man’ from ‘nature’ as progressive evolution” (Gellert & Lynch, 2003, p.20). Since dams block rivers from their longitudinal exchanges and reservoirs destruct terrestrial ecosystems through inundation. The changes induced by dams “directly and indirectly influence a myriad of dynamic factors that affect habitat heterogeneity and successional trajectories and, ultimately the ecological integrity of river ecosystems” (McCartney, 2001, p.10)
3.4.4 Dao Follows Nature – an Egalitarian Ideology
We have earlier seen that humanity in Daoist’s view of nature is not seen as the tip of a pyramid of a biological hierarchy; it is simply a part of nature (Kane, 2001). There was no hierarch or any discrimination in Daoism concept of nature. “The Dao of Heaven has no favorites: it is invariable given to good men.” (Daode Jing, Ch.79; quoted in Feng, 1947, tr. Hughers, p.63). We thereby have no reason to separate us from other creatures (Kane, 2001). Instead, we should appreciate the beauty of simplicity without aggrandizing our own significance in the cosmos, as Lucretius (ca.99BC-55Bc) said “the greatest wealth is to live content with little”
Because “Man is derived from the Earth, the Earth is derived from Heaven, Heaven is derived from Dao. Dao is self-derived” (Daode Jing, Ch.25, tr. Goddard).The heaven and the Earth both take their law from the intrinsic unified nature of the universe; therefore man should in principle also derive the laws which govern his behavior from the Yin/Yang template of the intrinsic universe. Daoism is a normative ethics in which rules and laws are self-employed, on the basis of the spiritual relatedness which exists amongst all entities. In this sense the order of human society and the order of nature are essentially similar and follow the same laws. This manifests a unilateral reverence for all creatures, cause “everything is to be treated on an equal footing” (Ip, 1983, p.339). This egalitarian expression embedded in Daoism had been adopted by Naess as an essential principle of deep ecology (Kane, 2001). To put it philosophically, everything in the universe is seen as ‘ontologically equal’. . .
Daoism reminds people in its doctrines that they should be aware of their own position in nature. ‘Homocentrism’ and the Daoist “axiological ordering of beings” are completely exclusive (Kane, 2001, p.43). There is no dominating or controlled relationship between man and nature. The Dade Jing and Zhuangzi teach ‘man’ humility and they both contain strong warnings towards humans not to act through superiority and ambition in any form (Kane, 2001). Both doctrines advocate an egalitarian and harmonious relationship between man and nature, as opposed to ‘the western role of steward or perfector” (Kane, 2001, p.53). Every individual, including humans, is manifested within the Dao equally (Goodman, 1980; Kane, 2001). That is why Laozi claims that “Dao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great and so is the (sage) king. In the universe there are four that are great, and the (sage) king is one of them” (Daode Jing, Ch.25, tr. Legge).
3.4.5 The Heavenly Dao is Non-interference – Follow the Nature
The concept of harmony is pivotal to Chinese philosophical thought including Daoism, for the perfect ‘order of things’ can only be achieved in harmony. The Daoism ethics therefore is ideally closely tied to respect for the environment. Daoism’s commitment to universal harmony suggests individual actions have a wider cosmic consequence. The guiding principle is not to disturb the harmony of the world. “Who would try to do something with the world will fail, they will actually ruin it” (Daode Jing, Ch.29). Such things as mines, Dam building and other activities which disturb the earth were long considered by locals as rupturing the channels of natural balance and would subsequently bring disaster to the locality. For Daoism, the “natural world is not an external utilitarian resource to be controlled and exploited, but a dynamic process within which harmonization is a liberating abstraction from the competitive striving of everyday human existence” (Jenkins, 2002, p.42). Daoist’ texts contain and encourage simplicity of life, non-interfering action, harmony between man and nature, and even back-to-nature romanticism (Ching, 1993). “They leave no trace” (Daode Jing, Ch.27). Serve to inspire and environmental philosophy of ethic of limited intervention, based upon a deep understanding of natural processes. The interpretation of the Daoist way of life under the contemporary context would mean a simple life based on a moderate range of material goods (or no more what we actually need) leading to extraordinarily content results, and a harmony with nature and its resources. This being so, the necessary intrusions into the earth need to be accomplished on a limited scale using natural and non-invasive approaches and technologies (Jenkins, 2002).
An Example for Acting Naturally-Dujiangyan Irrigation System
Acting naturally was practiced effectively by the ancient Chinese in their interaction with nature. The famous no-dam irrigation system Dujiangyan on the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, is a good example with its contemporary relevance of flood control measures and is perfectly illustrative of the Wu-wei approach: “follow the trend and navigate it”. The idea of “go with the flow” is considered to be more beneficial that to try to overly control things, or even to oppose the direction of things. During the Warring States period (406-221B.C.), people who lived along the banks of the Min River region (southwest China) suffered from droughts and flooding. Qin governor Li Bing researched the problem and decided, instead of building a dam, to construct a fish mouth shape levee (see figure 3-2) and then dig a tunnel through Yulei Mountain to divert a portion of the river’s flow to dry areas. The whole system is made up of relatively small individual parts, making it simple and cheap to repair (McCully, 2001). After the whole hydraulic system was finished, it not only ended the disastrous cycles of flood and drought, but also served as a lifeline benefit for agriculture in the region for thousands of the hectares near the city of Chengdu (the capital city of Sichuan Province), which are still benefit by the irrigated water diverted at Dujiangyan (McCully, 2001). Moreover, it became a mean to facilitate shipping and wood drifting ever since, now lasting for over two thousand years. Unlike contemporary dams where the water is blocked behind a huge wall, the engineering works of Dujiangyan reflect perfectly the Daoist philosophy of working with natural forces by allowing water to go through naturally (Mount Qingcheng and the Dujiangyan Irrigation System; Hou, 1989), while, in contrary, the Three Gorges Dam symbolizes the Maoist ambition of subduing and conquering the nature (Lavigne, 2005).
Figure 3-2: Fish Mouth Levee and Bottle-Neck Channel (Source: www.travelchinaguide.com)
Dao and Skill/Technique
Pervading Heaven and earth: that is the Way[Dao]. Moving among the ten thousand things: that is Virtue. Superiors governing the men below them: that is called administration. Ability finding trained expression: that is called skill. Skill is subsumed in administration; administration in duty; duty in Virtue; Virtue in the Way[Dao]; and the Way[Dao] in Heaven. (Zhuangzi, Heaven and Earth, tr. Watson)
Daode Jing and Zhuangzi both contain the concept of ‘abandon knowledge’. However, Zhuangzi has different opinions from Laozi regarding to ‘abandon Knowledge’. Zhuangzi tries to avoid the fatalist implication and contends that the skill/technology should be compatible with the great Dao. Nonetheless, technology should eventually be ‘subsumed’ in ‘Dao’. He admitted that knowledge as “a form of social control that instils unnaturaldesires, stimulates unnatural action”, and thus “constrains and distorts natural spontaneity” (Daoism, 2013, Ch.3). Zhuangzi highly appraised intuitively appropriate actions based on the observation, understanding and experience. The ideal skills that Zhuangzi prefers are the skills fit in to the concept of Dao, following the order of nature.
As Lord Wen-hui’s cook Ting cut up a large piece of Ox. His every motion along with his body parts, follows the natural grain of the meat so smoothly, effortlessly without even causing any waste or awkwardness. Because of his skill, his blade has not needed to be sharpened for nineteen years and still as sharp as new. “What I care about is the Dao, which goes beyond skill,” the cook responds to the surprise of Lord Wen on his skill, “Perception and understanding have come to a stop and spirit moves where it wants… so I never touch the smallest ligament or tendon, much less a main joint (Zhuangzi, The Secret Of Caring For Life). This analogy illustrates that “knowledge of the appropriate action comes from observing the natural character of the participants and adapting one’s actions to that character” (Kane, 2001, p.27). There are two aspects of Wu-wei appreciated by Zhuangzi as the oneness of skill and Dao that have caught the attention of modern environmentalists. The first is to act in accordance with nature, and the second is to gain sufficient knowledge of appropriate action drawn from observation and experience that one’s expedient and harmonious interactions with nature are enhanced (Kane, 2001; Hanson, 2013). The Dao’s actions are intended to correspond well with the predispositions of all surroundings, as illustrated below in this text from Zhuangzi:
If you want to nourish a bird with what nourishes a bird, then you should let it roost in the deep forest, play among the banks and islands, float on the rivers and lakes, eat mudfish and minnows, follow the rest of the flock in flight and rest, and live any way it chooses. … Fish live in water and thrive, but if men tried to live in water they would die. Creatures differ because they have different likes and dislikes. Therefore the former sages never required the same ability from all creatures or made them all do the same thing. Names should stop when they have expressed reality, concepts of right should be founded on what is suitable. This is what it means to have command of reason, and good fortune to support you.” (Zhuangzi, Perfect Happiness, 47)
Daoism demonstrates a firm grasp of some of the problems caused by the use of modern science and technology. Callicott (1994, p.11) defines this technology as “technology that blends with and harnesses natural forces, as opposed to technology that resists and attempts to dominate and reorganize nature”. Leopold claims, “Man’s invention of tools has enabled him to make changes of unprecedented violence, rapidity, and scope” (Leopold, 1949, p.217). To cooperate with nature in a Daoist approach requires a better understanding of nature’s processes and respect ‘nature in the order of things’. Hui Nanzi, an early Daoist contends: “He who conforms to the course of Dao, following the natural processes of Heaven and Earth, finds it easy to manage the whole world” (Goodman, 1983, p.75). Goodman (1983) believes that appropriate application of science and technology, coupled with comprehension of nature, allows humanity to be “neither completely dominated by natural forces nor enslaved by them” (Kane, 2001). Contrast to Wu-wei, Yu-wei (act intentionally) refers to the actions not taken naturally gain knowledge into consideration. And most importantly, knowledge that obtained in this way loses its natural spontaneity and becomes the servant of social and political interests. Such actions are particularly dangerous because it will address disharmonies from nature and adapt the approach of the ‘Yang’. Aggressive use of technology (Yang’s approach) in a way of making sudden changes within parts of the system imposes a threat to other parts of the system and breaks eventually the overall harmonious balances of the system (Starkey, 2007; Toh, 2009). The use of invasive technology, along with the involvement of massive capital and labor as shown in the TGDP is typical action of Yu-wei. In this sense, Dao and wu-wei would be served as the theoretical restraints in humanity’s utilization and pursuit of science and technology (Kane, 2001).
Curbing the Desires and Returning to Innocence
To govern the people is the affair of heaven and there is nothing like thrift. Now consider that thrift is said to come from early practice…. This is called the possession of deep roots and of a staunch stem. To life, to everlastingness, to comprehension, this is the Dao.(Daode Jing, Ch.59)
“Artificially created desires lead to unnecessary competition and strife” (Daode Jing, Ch.3). Hence Daoism contends that human beings should refrain from their desires. Zhuangzi hints at places that pursuing the names (e.g. for status, reputation, and fortune) curbs our capacity for appreciation to the inanimate world of nature.
Daode Jing has its advice on how to restrict exacerbation of our desires:
No lure is greater than to possess what others want,
No disaster greater than not to be content with what one has,
No presage of evil greater than that men should be wanting to get more.
Truly: He who has once known the contentment that comes simply through being content, will never again be otherwise than contented. (Daode Jing, Ch.46, tr.Waley)
The tenet of “Hence always rid yourself of desire in order to observe its secrets” (Daode Jing, Ch.1) is balanced by the maxim “always allow yourself to have desire in order to observe its manifestations” (Daode Jing, Ch.1) seems to be the practical advice not to desire or possess things. ‘With desire’ allows people to acknowledge the ‘manifestations’ and ‘boundary’ and therefore reaches the level of ‘without desire’ in order to discover the secrets of the Dao (Wong, 2011b). The natural state is one with few desires. Excess and extravagance are to be avoided while frugality and simplicity are to be promoted (Kane, 2001; Cooper & James, 2005). Only in this way, the limited resources in the nature can sustain the needs of human beings in a society (Li, 2003).
For the Daoists, indulgence of desires can never lead to happiness because the manifesting of desire appear in society is not constant. Unbridled human desires vis-à-vis the environment are purposely exacerbated by the media advocating modern civilization through manifestation of automobiles, industrial products, agricultural chemicals and other material goods, as well as in the transformation, modification and destruction of the natural environment through deforestation, exhaustion of natural resources, and development projects (Jenkins, 2002, ). ‘More is better’ is the characteristic of modern consumer society. By promoting consumerism, our desires for something out of our natural tendencies are successfully pushed and strengthened to the point that goes beyond the limits. By then, nature will have the last word. The mode of continuous development and growth is against Daoist point of view of curbing the unnatural levels of desires. This indulgence of the material desires, coupled with ignorance and arrogant towards nature has, I submit, led to almost all our ecological problems that we are now facing.
Laozi contends that existence of myriad beings relies on nature. Because “Man is derived from nature, and nature is derived from Heaven, Heaven must be derived from Dao. Dao is self-derived” (Daode Jing, Ch.25, tr. Goddard). All things are finite and they come naturally and they go naturally. Everything in nature has its natural course of cycles from coming into being, striving, flourishing, falling, disappearing, followed then another similarly full cycle of birth to death, and so forth as follows. Daoism considers that the orientation of life is from native simplicity and returns to a more profound simplicity of reality. Laozi said, “All things are in process, rising and returning. Plants come to blossom, but only to return to the root. Returning to the root is like seeking tranquility; it is moving towards its destiny. To move toward destiny is like eternity” (Daode Jing, Ch.16, tr. Goddard). The Daode Jing and the Zhuangzi contain numerous messages affirming this “a high level of ecological consciousness” (Sylvan & Bennett, 1988, p.148), which coincides the idea of ‘limits to growth’ promoted by the Club of Rome at the beginning of the 1970s, responding to the rapid depletion of the earth’s resources caused by the dominant economic development model (Simonneaux & Simonneaux, 2009a).
Daoism believes that one should “manifest plainness, embrace simplicity, reduce selfishness and restrain desires” (Daode Jing, Ch.19) in order to achieve the state of ‘Pu (primitivism)’. The notion of Primitivism in contemporary society contains the less reliance on technology, particularly the one conducive to extravagance and excess rather than to general welfare improvements (Daoism, 2013). Daoism advocates frugality, guiding people back to a state of naturalness, simplicity, and harmony with nature (Chen, 2010). “Gracing things without possessing them, benefiting everything but asking for nothing back” (Daode Jing, Ch.34). Zhuangzi recommends: “Not to be encumbered with popular fashions . . . to seek no more than is sufficient for nourishing oneself and others, thus setting one’s heart at peace” (Chuang Tzu, the World, tr. Watson). Laozi warns the consequence of unleashed desires: “Only when a man realizes that he has enough can he learn not to aim at winning greater wealth and more exalted rank, the ceaseless pursuit of which will only end in disaster” (Daode Jing, Ch.46. Tr. Lau). The similar concept was expressed by Mahatma Gandhi “The world has enough for everybody’s needs, but not enough for everybody’s greed” (quoted in Roy, 2011, preface).
Nowadays, global ecosystems are threatened by unsustainable exploitaton and consumption of natural resources. In China, the so called ‘modern life style’ and ‘success’ aroused from modern ‘technologically empowered desire’ (Kalton, 1998) are symbolized by having big cars, big apartments and more money. In fact, excessive consumption clearly accelerates the depletion of natural resources and imposes a grave pressure on the natural environment to cope with the expropriation of required resource. Human beings are indulged by desires and have then lost touch with their original wisdom which preserved in Daoist concepts such as “reducing selfishness and restraining desires”, “discerning plainness and embracing simplicity”, “returning to primitivism and achieving perfectness”, all of these imperatives can provide not only an important inspiration for a spiritually contented lifestyle, but also promote an environmentally friendly one (Kane, 2001; Chen, 2010).
[1] The primary Daoist texts cited here is the Dao De Jing in multiple English translations by various authors.
[2]. Laozi (老子, translated literally from Chinese means ‘old master’ or ‘old one’, also Lao Tse, Lao Tu, Lao-Tzu, Lao-Tsu, Laotze, Laosi, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations) was a mystic philosopher and poet of ancient China, and best known as the author of the Daode Jing. Historians variously contend that he lived in the 4th century BC (some say 6th century BC) during the Warring States period.
[3] Zhuangzi (simplified Chinese: 庄子; also Zhuāng Zǐ, Zhuang Tzŭ, Zhuang Tze, Zhuang Zhou, Chuang Tsu, Chuang Tzu, Chouang-Dsi, Chuang Tse, or Chuangtze), was one of the most significant Chinese philosophers who lived around the 4th century BC during the Hundred Schools of Thought and the Warring States Period. He is believed to be the author of the Zhuangzi.
[4] The primary Zhuangzi texts cited are from the Book of Chuang Tzu in multiple English translations by various authors.